What the voltage does under load and why sag matters more than nominal.
Voltage sag under load
Sag is internal resistance showing itself; it is why a tired pack cuts off under load but reads full at rest.
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Reading a discharge curve
The useful energy sits between the knee and the cut-off, not between 100% and 0%.
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Voltage & sizing questions
Short answers to the ones that come up most.
How do I choose a battery voltage?
It is set by the equipment: 12V for small loads, 24V for light traction, 48V for storage and most traction, higher for industrial systems.
How do I work out runtime?
Multiply amp-hours by nominal voltage for watt-hours, then divide by the real load — and discount 10–15% for conversion losses.
Why is a 12V lithium battery labelled 12.8V?
LiFePO4 cells are 3.2V nominal, so four in series give 12.8V, which 12V equipment accepts.
What does C-rate mean?
Current relative to capacity: 1C on a 100Ah battery is 100A.
Can I series-connect different batteries?
No — same model, capacity and age, or the strings unbalance.
